Quelqu'un a-t-il résolu l'exercice 4.1 de PTLOS?

C'est un exercice donné dans Probability Theory: The Logic of Science par Edwin Jaynes, 2003. Il y a une solution partielle ici . J'ai élaboré une solution partielle plus générale et je me demandais si quelqu'un d'autre l'avait résolue. J'attendrai un peu avant de poster ma réponse, pour essayer les autres.

Bon, supposons donc que nous avons $n$ hypothèse mutuellement exclusive et exhaustive, notée $H_i \;\;(i=1,\dots,n)$ . Supposons en outre que nous ayons$m$ ensembles de données, notés$D_j \;\;(j=1,\dots,m)$ . Le rapport de vraisemblance pour la ième hypothèse est donné par:

$$LR(H_{i})=\frac{P(D_{1}D_{2}\dots,D_{m}|H_{i})}{P(D_{1}D_{2}\dots,D_{m}|\overline{H}_{i})}$$

Notez que ce sont des probabilités conditionnelles. Supposons maintenant que, étant donné la ième hypothèse $H_{i}$ les $m$ ensembles de données sont indépendants, nous avons donc:

$$P(D_{1}D_{2}\dots,D_{m}|H_{i})=\prod_{j=1}^{m}P(D_{j}|H_{i}) \;\;\;\; (i=1,\dots,n)\;\;\;\text{Condition 1}$$

Maintenant, il serait très pratique que le dénominateur prenne également en compte cette situation, de sorte que nous ayons:

$$P(D_{1}D_{2}\dots,D_{m}|\overline{H}_{i})=\prod_{j=1}^{m}P(D_{j}|\overline{H}_{i}) \;\;\;\; (i=1,\dots,n)\;\;\;\text{Condition 2}$$

Car dans ce cas, le rapport de vraisemblance se divisera en un produit de facteurs plus petits pour chaque ensemble de données, de sorte que nous avons:

$$LR(H_i)=\prod_{j=1}^{m}\frac{P(D_{j}|H_{i})}{P(D_{j}|\overline{H}_{i})}$$

Ainsi, dans ce cas, chaque ensemble de données "votera pour " ou "votera contre H i " indépendamment de tout autre ensemble de données.$H_i$$H_i$

L'exercice consiste à prouver que si (plus de deux hypothèses), il n'y a pas une telle manière non triviale dans laquelle cette factorisation peut se produire. Autrement dit, si vous supposez que la condition 1 et la condition 2 sont remplies, alors au plus l'un des facteurs: P ( D 1 | H i$n>2$ est différent de 1, et donc un seul ensemble de données contribuera au rapport de vraisemblance.

$$\frac{P(D_{1}|H_{i})}{P(D_{1}|\overline{H}_{i})}\frac{P(D_{2}|H_{i})}{P(D_{2}|\overline{H}_{i})}\dots\frac{P(D_{m}|H_{i})}{P(D_{m}|\overline{H}_{i})}$$

Personnellement, j'ai trouvé ce résultat assez fascinant, car il montre essentiellement que les tests d'hypothèses multiples ne sont rien d'autre qu'une série de tests d'hypothèses binaires.

La raison pour laquelle nous avons accepté l'eq. 4.28 (dans le livre, votre condition 1) était que nous supposions que la probabilité des données étant donné une certaine hypothèse et que les informations de base X soient indépendantes, en d'autres termes pour tout D i et D j avec i ≠ j :$H_a$$X$$D_i$$D_j$$i\neq{j}$

extensibilité au-delà du cas binaire peut donc être discutée comme ceci: si nous supposons que l'équation 1 est vraie, est-ce que l'équation 2 est également vraie?

$$\begin{equation}P(D_i|D_jH_aX)=P(D_i|H_aX)\quad\quad{\rm (1)}\end{equation}$$

Voyons d'abord le côté gauche de l'éq.2, en utilisant la règle de multiplication:

$$\begin{equation}P(D_i|D_j\overline{H_a}X)\stackrel{?}{=}P(D_i|\overline{H_a}X)\quad\quad{\rm (2)}\end{equation}$$

$$\begin{equation}P(D_i|D_j\overline{H_a}X)=\frac{P(D_iD_j\overline{H_a}|X)}{P(D_j\overline{H_a}|X)}\quad\quad{\rm (3)}\end{equation}$$ $n$$\{H_1\dots{H_n}\}$ $$\overline{H_a}=\sum_{b\neq{a}}H_b$$ $$P(D_i|D_j\overline{H_a}X)=\frac{\sum_{b\neq{a}}P(D_i|D_jH_bX)P(D_jH_b|X)}{\sum_{b\neq{a}}P(D_jH_b|X)}=\frac{\sum_{b\neq{a}}P(D_i|H_bX)P(D_jH_b|X)}{\sum_{b\neq{a}}P(D_jH_b|X)}$$ For the case that we have only two hypotheses, the summations are removed (since there is only one $b\neq{a}$), the equal terms in the nominator and denominator, $P(D_jH_b|X$), cancel out and eq.2 is proved correct, since $H_b=\overline{H_a}$. Therefore equation 4.29 can be derived from equation 4.28 in the book. But when we have more than two hypotheses, this doesn't happen, for example, if we have three hypotheses: $\{H_1, H_2, H_3\}$, the equation above becomes: $$P(D_i|D_j\overline{H_1}X)=\frac{P(D_i|H_2X)P(D_jH_2|X)+P(D_i|H_3X)P(D_jH_3|X)}{P(D_jH_2|X)+P(D_jH_3|X)}$$ In other words: $$P(D_i|D_j\overline{H_1}X)=\frac{P(D_i|H_2X)}{1+\frac{P(D_jH_3|X)}{P(D_jH_2|X)}}+\frac{P(D_i|H_3X)}{1+\frac{P(D_jH_2|X)}{P(D_jH_3|X)}}$$ The only way this equation can yield eq.2 is that both denominators equal 1, i.e. both fractions in the denominators must equal zero. But that is impossible.

Okay, so rather than go and re-derive Saunder's equation (5), I will just state it here. Condition 1 and 2 imply the following equality:

$$\prod_{j=1}^{m}\left(\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}d_{jk}\right)=\left(\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}\right)^{m-1}\left(\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}\prod_{j=1}^{m}d_{jk}\right)$$ where $$d_{jk}=P(D_{j}|H_{k},I)\;\;\;\;h_{k}=P(H_{k}|I)$$

Now we can specialise to the case $m=2$ (two data sets) by taking $D_{1}^{(1)}\equiv D_{1}$ and relabeling $D_{2}^{(1)}\equiv D_{2}D_{3}\dots D_{m}$. Note that these two data sets still satisfy conditions 1 and 2, so the result above applies to them as well. Now expanding in the case $m=2$ we get:

$$\left(\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}d_{1k}\right)\left(\sum_{l\neq i}h_{l}d_{2l}\right)=\left(\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}\right)\left(\sum_{l\neq i}h_{l}d_{1l}d_{2l}\right)$$

$$\rightarrow\sum_{k\neq i}\sum_{l\neq i}h_{k}h_{l}d_{1k}d_{2l}=\sum_{k\neq i}\sum_{l\neq i}h_{k}h_{l}d_{1l}d_{2l}$$

$$\rightarrow\sum_{k\neq i}\sum_{l\neq i}h_{k}h_{l}d_{2l}(d_{1k}-d_{1l})=0\;\;\;\;\;\;\; (i=1,\dots,n)$$

The term $(d_{1a}-d_{1b})$ occurs twice in the above double summation, once when $k=a$ and $l=b$, and once again when $k=b$ and $l=a$. This will occur as long as $a,b\neq i$. The coefficient of each term is given by $d_{2b}$ and $-d_{2a}$. Now because there are $i$ of these equations, we can actually remove $i$ from these equations. To illustrate, take $i=1$, now this means we have all conditions except where $a=1,b=2$ and $b=1,a=2$. Now take $i=3$, and we now can have these two conditions (note this assumes at least three hypothesis). So the equation can be re-written as:

$$\sum_{l>k}h_{k}h_{l}(d_{2l}-d_{2k})(d_{1k}-d_{1l})=0$$

Now each of the $h_i$ terms must be greater than zero, for otherwise we are dealing with $n_{1}<n$ hypothesis, and the answer can be reformulated in terms of $n_{1}$. So these can be removed from the above set of conditions:

$$\sum_{l>k}(d_{2l}-d_{2k})(d_{1k}-d_{1l})=0$$

Thus, there are $\frac{n(n-1)}{2}$ conditions that must be satisfied, and each conditions implies one of two "sub-conditions": that $d_{jk}=d_{jl}$ for either $j=1$ or $j=2$ (but not necessarily both). Now we have a set of all of the unique pairs $(k,l)$ for $d_{jk}=d_{jl}$. If we were to take $n-1$ of these pairs for one of the $j$, then we would have all the numbers $1,\dots,n$ in the set, and $d_{j1}=d_{j2}=\dots=d_{j,n-1}=d_{j,n}$. This is because the first pair has $2$ elements, and each additional pair brings at least one additional element to the set*

But note that because there are $\frac{n(n-1)}{2}$ conditions, we must choose at least the smallest integer greater than or equal to $\frac{1}{2}\times\frac{n(n-1)}{2}=\frac{n(n-1)}{4}$ for one of the $j=1$ or $j=2$. If $n>4$ then the number of terms chosen is greater than $n-1$. If $n=4$ or $n=3$ then we must choose exactly $n-1$ terms. This implies that $d_{j1}=d_{j2}=\dots=d_{j,n-1}=d_{j,n}$. Only with two hypothesis ($n=2$) is where this does not occur. But from the last equation in Saunder's article this equality condition implies:

$$P(D_{j}|\overline{H}_{i})=\frac{\sum_{k\neq i}d_{jk}h_{k}}{\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}}=d_{ji}\frac{\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}}{\sum_{k\neq i}h_{k}}=d_{ji}=P(D_{j}|H_{i})$$

Thus, in the likelihood ratio we have:

$$\frac{P(D_{1}^{(1)}|H_{i})}{P(D_{1}^{(1)}|\overline{H}_{i})}=\frac{P(D_{1}|H_{i})}{P(D_{1}|\overline{H}_{i})}=1 \text{ OR} \frac{P(D_{2}^{(1)}|H_{i})}{P(D_{2}^{(1)}|\overline{H}_{i})}=\frac{P(D_{2}D_{3}\dots,D_{m}|H_{i})}{P(D_{2}D_{3}\dots,D_{m}|\overline{H}_{i})}=1$$

To complete the proof, note that if the second condition holds, the result is already proved, and only one ratio can be different from 1. If the first condition holds, then we can repeat the above analysis by relabeling $D_{1}^{(2)}\equiv D_{2}$ and $D_{2}^{(2)}\equiv D_{3}\dots,D_{m}$. Then we would have $D_{1},D_{2}$ not contributing, or $D_{2}$ being the only contributor. We would then have a third relabeling when $D_{1}D_{2}$ not contributing holds, and so on. Thus, only one data set can contribute to the likelihood ratio when condition 1 and condition 2 hold, and there are more than two hypothesis.

*NOTE: An additional pair might bring no new terms, but this would be offset by a pair which brought 2 new terms. e.g. take $d_{j1}=d_{j2}$ as first[+2], $d_{j1}=d_{j3}$ [+1] and $d_{j2}=d_{j3}$ [+0], but next term must have $d_{jk}=d_{jl}$ for both $k,l\notin (1,2,3)$. This will add two terms [+2]. If $n=4$ then we don't need to choose any more, but for the "other" $j$ we must choose the 3 pairs which are not $(1,2),(2,3),(1,3)$. These are $(1,4),(2,4),(3,4)$ and thus the equality holds, because all numbers $(1,2,3,4)$ are in the set.

For the record, here is a somewhat more extensive proof. It also contains some background information. Maybe this is helpful for others studying the topic.

The main idea of the proof is to show that Jaynes' conditions 1 and 2 imply that

$$P(D_{m_k}|H_iX)=P(D_{m_k}|X),$$ for all but one data set $m_k=1,\ldots,m$. It then shows that for all these data sets, we also have $$P(D_{m_k}|\overline H_iX)=P(D_{m_k}|X).$$ Thus we have for all but one data set, $$\frac{P(D_{m_k}|H_iX)}{P(D_{m_k}|\overline H_iX)} = \frac{P(D_{m_k}|X)}{P(D_{m_k}|X)} = 1.$$ The reason that I wanted to include the proof here is that some of the steps involved are not at all obvious, and one needs to take care not to use anything else than conditions 1 and 2 and the product rule (as many of the other proofs implicitly do). The link above includes all these steps in detail. It is on my Google Drive and I will make sure it stays accessible.